The in's and outs of a computer

The physical elements of a computer, its hardware, are generally divided into the central processing unit (CPU), main memory (or random-access memory, RAM), and peripherals. The last class encompasses all sorts of input and output (I/O) devices: keyboard, display monitor, printer, disk drives, network connections, scanners, and more. The CPU and RAM are integrated circuits (ICs)—small silicon wafers, or chips, that contain thousands or millions of transistors that function as electrical switches. In 1965 Gordon Moore, one of the founders of Intel, stated what has become known as Moore’s law: the number of transistors on a chip doubles about every 18 months. Moore suggested that financial constraints would soon cause his law to break down, but it has been remarkably accurate for far longer than he first envisioned. Advances in the design of chips and transistors, such as the creation of three-dimensional chips (rather than their previously flat design), have helped to bolster their capabilities, though there are limits to this process as well. While cofounder and CEO of NVIDIA Jensen Huang claims that the law has largely run its course, Intel’s CEO, Pat Gelsinger, has argued otherwise. Companies such as IBM continue to experiment with using materials other than silicon to design chips. The viability of Moore’s law relies on immense advancements in chip technology as well as breakthroughs in moving beyond silicon as the industry standard going forward.